Quality assessment of different polyethylene-packaged groundwater in the Ilorin metropolis of Nigeria for compliance with standards

Mutiat Balogun; Tawakalitu Aruna; Olaide Akintayo; Rasheedat Imam; Olayinka Shukurat; Oluseye Lala; Fausat Kolawole; Christianah Gbadebo

doi:10.5219/1961

Authors

Mutiat Balogun University of Ilorin, Department of Home Economics and Food Science, PMB 1515, Kwara State, Tel.: +23455948515
Tawakalitu Aruna Kwara State University, Department of Food Science and Technology, Malete, Nigeria, Tel.: +2348099454023
Olaide Akintayo University of Ilorin, Department of Home Economics and Food Science, PMB 1515, Kwara State, Tel.: +2347037445069 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4705-0163
Rasheedat Imam University of Ilorin, Department of Home Economics and Food Science, PMB 1515, Kwara State, Tel.: +23491408145
Olayinka Shukurat University of Ilorin, Department of Home Economics and Food Science, PMB 1515, Kwara State, Tel.: +2348173552728 https://orcid.org/0009-0001-4856-3668
Oluseye Lala University of Ilorin, Department of Home Economics and Food Science, PMB 1515, Kwara State, Tel.: +2348088970726
Fausat Kolawole University of Ilorin, Department of Home Economics and Food Science, PMB 1515, Kwara State, Tel.: +2348033764414
Christianah Gbadebo University of Ilorin, Department of Home Economics and Food Science, PMB 1515, Kwara State, Tel.: +2348065982341

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.5219/1961

Keywords:

sachet water, physicochemical, microbial, regulatory standards, conformity

Abstract

There is a notable proliferation of sachet water brands in the Ilorin Metropolis of Nigeria. However, more information regarding their safety for human consumption is required. This study aimed to determine the quality attributes of sachet water produced within the Ilorin metropolis of Nigeria to ascertain their conformity with regulatory standards. Three sachet water companies were each selected from three Local Government Areas within the study area. Physicochemical and microbial analyses were conducted on the collected water samples within 24 hours of production and monthly during 4-month storage. The results showed that temperature (25.10-30.13 ℃) and turbidity (0.37-2.84 NTU) were within permissible limits. Total hardness (36.0-136.33 mg/L) and pH (6.42-8.86) significantly (p ≤0.05) increased during storage and were above standards in some samples. There were significant (p ≤0.05) variations in chlorides (2.83-8.57 mg/L), nitrates (0.15-0.64 mg/L), sulphates (4.70-7.12 mg/L), and sodium contents (10.16-18.74 mg/L) but all were within standards. While five of the nine sachet water brands complied (2-100 CFU/mL) with the limit of 100 CFU/mL for the total viable count, all the samples failed the zero-tolerance requirement for coliform. Possible fecal contamination was concluded as the main concern with the sachet water brands produced within Ilorin Metropolis, suggesting their unfitness for human consumption. The water brands may, therefore, pose severe health hazards to consumers and threaten public health. In conclusion, the study demonstrated the likely unfitness of some sachet water brands in the Ilorin Metropolis of Nigeria for human consumption, owing to fecal coliform. This underscores the need for regulatory agencies to intensify the certification process of prospective sachet water factories. Furthermore, regular inspections of certified factories and their practices and products are recommended to ensure continued compliance with regulatory standards.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

Metrics

Metrics Loading ...

References

Isikwue, M. O., & Chikezie, A. (2014). Quality assessment of various sachet water brands marketed in Bauchi metropolis of Nigeria. In International Journal of Advances in Engineering and Technology (Vol. 6, Issue 6, pp. 2489–2495). Blue Eyes Intelligence Engineering and Sciences Publication.

Ajala, O. J., Ighalo, J. O., Adeniyi, A. G., Ogunniyi, S., & Adeyanju, C. A. (2020). Contamination issues in sachet and bottled water in Nigeria: a mini-review. In Sustainable Water Resources Management (Vol. 6, Issue 6). Springer Science and Business Media LLC. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40899-020-00478-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40899-020-00478-5

Stoler, J., Fink, G., Weeks, J. R., Otoo, R. A., Ampofo, J. A., & Hill, A. G. (2012). When urban taps run dry: Sachet water consumption and health effects in low income neighborhoods of Accra, Ghana. In Health & Place (Vol. 18, Issue 2, pp. 250–262). Elsevier BV. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2011.09.020 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2011.09.020

Sojobi, A., Owamah, H., & Dahunsi, S. (2014). Comparative study of household water treatment in a rural community in Kwara state, Nigeria. In Nigerian Journal of Technology (Vol. 33, Issue 1, p. 134). African Journals Online (AJOL). https://doi.org/10.4314/njt.v33i1.18 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4314/njt.v33i1.18

Dada, A. C. (2009). Sachet water phenomenon in Nigeria: Assessment of the potential health impacts. African Journal of Microbiology Research (Vol. 3, Issue 1, pp. 15–21). Academic Journals. https://doi.org/10.5942/jawwa.2017.109.0087

Airaodion, A. I. (2019). Assessment of Sachet and Bottled Water Quality in Ibadan, Nigeria. In Global Journal of Nutrition & Food Science (Vol. 1, Issue 4). Iris Publishers LLC. https://doi.org/10.33552/gjnfs.2019.01.000519 DOI: https://doi.org/10.33552/GJNFS.2019.01.000519

Ali, I., Singh, P., Aboul-Enein, H. Y., & Sharma, B. (2009). Chiral Analysis of Ibuprofen Residues in Water and Sediment. In Analytical Letters (Vol. 42, Issue 12, pp. 1747–1760). Informa UK Limited. https://doi.org/10.1080/00032710903060768 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00032710903060768

Basheer, A. A. (2017). Chemical chiral pollution: Impact on the society and science and need of the regulations in the 21st century. In Chirality (Vol. 30, Issue 4, pp. 402–406). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/chir.22808 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/chir.22808

Basheer, A. A. (2018). New generation nano-adsorbents for the removal of emerging contaminants in water. In Journal of Molecular Liquids (Vol. 261, pp. 583–593). Elsevier BV. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2018.04.021 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2018.04.021

Basheer, A. A., & Ali, I. (2018). Stereoselective uptake and degradation of (±)‐o,p‐DDD pesticide stereomers in water‐sediment system. In Chirality (Vol. 30, Issue 9, pp. 1088–1095). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/chir.22989 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/chir.22989

Omole, D. O., Ndambuki, J. M., & Balogun, K. (2015). Consumption of sachet water in Nigeria: quality, public health and economic perspectives. In African Journal of Science, Technology, Innovation and Development (Vol. 7, Issue 1, pp. 45–51). Informa UK Limited. https://doi.org/10.1080/20421338.2014.979654 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/20421338.2014.979654

Oluwaseun A Akinsola, Tolulope O Oyewumi, Adegola, B. A., & Okpe, P. O. (2021). Quality Assessment of Selected Sachet Water Brands Marketed in Owo, Akure and Ondo Areas of Ondo State, Nigeria. Unpublished. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.22829.00481

Yusuf, Y. O., Jimoh, A. I., Onaolapo, E. O., & Dabo, Y. (2015). An assessment of sachet water quality in Zaria Area of Kaduna State, Nigeria. In Journal of Geography and Regional Planning (Vol. 8, Issue 7, pp. 174–180). Academic Journals. https://doi.org/10.5897/jgrp2015.0501 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5897/JGRP2015.0501

Opafola, O. T., Oladepo, K. T., Ajibade, F. O., & David, A. O. (2020). Potability assessment of packaged sachet water sold within a tertiary institution in southwestern Nigeria. In Journal of King Saud University - Science (Vol. 32, Issue 3, pp. 1999–2004). Elsevier BV. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2020.02.004 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2020.02.004

Sheshe, M., & Magashi, A. (2015). Assessment of physicochemical quality of sachet water produced in selected local government areas of Kano Metropolis, Kano State - Nigeria. In Bayero Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences (Vol. 7, Issue 2, p. 31). African Journals Online (AJOL). https://doi.org/10.4314/bajopas.v7i2.7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4314/bajopas.v7i2.7

Duru, C. E., Amadi, U. S., & Enyoh, C. E. (2017). Storage and its effect on chemical quality indicators in sachet water brands sold in Owerri Municipal, Imo State, Nigeria. In World News of Natural Sciences (Vol. 12, pp. 73–81). Złocieniec: Scientific Publishing House "Darwin".

Olayemi, A. B. (1999). Microbial potability of bottled and packaged drinking waters hawked in Ilorin metropolis. In International Journal of Environmental Health Research (Vol. 9, Issue 3, pp. 245–248). Informa UK Limited. https://doi.org/10.1080/09603129973218 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09603129973218

Sule, I., Agbabiaka, T., Saliu, B., Adewumi, O., & Bello, A.B. (2017). Bacteriological and Physicochemical Analysis of Sachet Water Sold in Ilorin Metropolis, Nigeria. Al-Hikmah Journal of Pure & Applied Sciences (Vol. 30, Issue 1, pp. 2978–2986). Al-Hikmah University Central Journal.

Ajadi, B., Adedapo, A., & Tunde, A. M. (2011). Impact of climate on urban agriculture: case study of Ilorin City, Nigeria. In Global Journal of Human-Social Science Research (Vol. 11, Issue 1, pp. 25–29). Global Journals.

Idrees, M. O., Yusuf, A., Mokhtar, E. S., & Yao, K. (2022). Urban flood susceptibility mapping in Ilorin, Nigeria, using GIS and multi-criteria decision analysis. In Modeling Earth Systems and Environment (Vol. 8, Issue 4, pp. 5779–5791). Springer Science and Business Media LLC. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40808-022-01479-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40808-022-01479-3

Ogunlela, A. O. (2012). Quantitative Analysis of Groundwater Flow in Ilorin, Nigeria. In Journal of Engineering Science and Technology Review (Vol. 5, Issue 2, pp. 57–59). International Hellenic University. https://doi.org/10.25103/jestr.052.11 DOI: https://doi.org/10.25103/jestr.052.11

Baird, R. B., Eaton, A. D., Rice, E. W., & Bridgewater, L. (2017). Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 23rd Edition, American Public Health Association, Washington DC.

Ajekunle, Z., Ojekunle, V., Eruola, A., Oyebanji, F., Olatunde, K., Amujo, B., Sangowusi, O., Adekttan, A., & Taiwo, A. (2015). The Effects of Storage on Sachet Water Quality in Ogun State, Nigeria. In Journal of Applied Sciences and Environmental Management (Vol. 19, Issue 2, p. 183). African Journals Online (AJOL). https://doi.org/10.4314/jasem.v19i2.3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4314/jasem.v19i2.3

Onweluzo, J., & Akuagbazie, C. (2011). Assessment of the quality of bottled and sachet water sold in Nsukka town. In Agro-Science (Vol. 9, Issue 2). African Journals Online (AJOL). https://doi.org/10.4314/as.v9i2.64804 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4314/as.v9i2.64804

Balogun, M., Oyeyinka, A., Kolawole, F., El-Imam, A., & Oyeyinka, A. (2022). Physicochemical properties, consumer acceptability and microbial quality of saccharified sweet potato juice preserved with lemon. In The Annals of the University Dunarea de Jos of Galati. Fascicle VI - Food Technology (Vol. 46, Issue 1, pp. 9–20). Universitatea Dunarea de Jos din Galati. https://doi.org/10.35219/foodtechnology.2022.1.01 DOI: https://doi.org/10.35219/foodtechnology.2022.1.01

APHA. (1999). Standard methods for examination of water and wastewater. 20th ed, Washington DC, American Public Health Association Publication, Washington D.C.2340.

Sutton, S. (2010). The most probable number method and its uses in enumeration, qualification, and validation. In Journal of Validation Technology (Vol. 16, Issue 3, pp. 35–38). Institute of Validation Technology.

Unegbu, V. N., Ezebialu, C. U., Omeje, M. J., Nkwoemeka, N. E., Eze, E. M., & Ezennia, O. J. (2017). The Effects of storage on the physicochemical properties of the sachet water produced, sold and consumed within Owerri metropolis, Imo State. In International Journal of Research and Review (Vol. 4, Issue 8, pp. 71–83). Galore Knowledge Publication Pvt. Ltd.

Danso-Boateng, E., & Frimpong, I. K. (2013). Quality analysis of plastic sachet and bottled water brands produced or sold in Kumasi, Ghana. In International Journal of Development and Sustainability (Vol. 4, pp. 2222–2232). International Society for Development and Sustainability.

Epundu, U., Adinma, E., Ezeama, N., Emelumadu, O., & Ogbonna, B. (2017). A Review on Packaged Drinking Water, Quality Regulations and Public Health: Exploring Potability and Safety Gap Implications for Public Health in Nigeria. In International Journal of TROPICAL DISEASE & Health (Vol. 25, Issue 3, pp. 1–10). Sciencedomain International. https://doi.org/10.9734/ijtdh/2017/35846 DOI: https://doi.org/10.9734/IJTDH/2017/35846

Saalidong, B. M., Aram, S. A., Otu, S., & Lartey, P. O. (2022). Examining the dynamics of the relationship between water pH and other water quality parameters in ground and surface water systems. In U. Sarker (Ed.), PLOS ONE (Vol. 17, Issue 1, p. e0262117). Public Library of Science (PLoS). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0262117 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0262117

Egbueri, J. C. (2020). Heavy Metals Pollution Source Identification and Probabilistic Health Risk Assessment of Shallow Groundwater in Onitsha, Nigeria. In Analytical Letters (Vol. 53, Issue 10, pp. 1620–1638). Informa UK Limited. https://doi.org/10.1080/00032719.2020.1712606 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00032719.2020.1712606

Ayegbo, K. S., Ogundipe, K. E., Olimaro, G., Ajimalofin, A. D., & Akinwumi, I. I. (2021). Water Quality of Selected Sachet Water Brands Sold in Sango-Ota, Nigeria. In IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering (Vol. 1036, Issue 1, p. 012011). IOP Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899x/1036/1/012011 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/1036/1/012011

Bacha, A. A., Durrani, M. I., & Paracha, P. I. (2010). Physical and bacteriological characteristics of drinking water of Peshawar. In Pakistan Journal of Nutrition (Vo. 9, Issue 10, pp. 1028–1033). Asian Network for Scientific Information. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3923/pjn.2010.1028.1033

Duwiejuah, A. B., Cobbina, S. J., & Akrong, M. O. (2013). Effect of Storage on the Quality of Sachet-Vended Water in the Tamale Metropolis, Ghana. In Journal of Environmental Protection (Vol. 04, Issue 06, pp. 629–637). Scientific Research Publishing, Inc. https://doi.org/10.4236/jep.2013.46072 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4236/jep.2013.46072

Adedire, O. M., Atere, A., Ogundipe, W. F., & Farinu, A. O. (2021). Effects of Direct and Indirect Sunlight on Polythene Packs, Sensory, Microbial and Chemical Properties of Sachet Water. In Journal of Advances in Biology & Biotechnology (pp. 25–34). Sciencedomain International. https://doi.org/10.9734/jabb/2021/v24i130194 DOI: https://doi.org/10.9734/jabb/2021/v24i130194

Amuah, E. E. Y., Bekoe, E. M. O., Kazapoe, R. W., Dankwa, P., Nandomah, S., Douti, N. B., Abanyie, S. K., & Okyere, I. K. (2021). Sachet water quality and Vendors’ practices in Damongo, northern Ghana during the emergence of SARS-CoV-2 using multivariate statistics, water quality and pollution indices, and panel assessment. In Environmental Challenges (Vol. 4, p. 100164). Elsevier BV. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2021.100164 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2021.100164

Osmani, M., Hoxha, B., Sotir, M., Mazrreku, A., Karamelo, P., Nikolin, G., BekteshiI, L., Karasali, V., Kucaj, E., & Balla, J. (2019). Evaluation of Drinking Water Quality in Pogradec District. In The Eurasia Proceedings of Science Technology Engineering and Mathematics (Vol. 8, pp. 20–28). Konya: ISRES Publishing.

Onyemesili, O. O., Egbueri, J. C., & Ezugwu, C. K. (2020). Assessing the pollution status, ecological and health risks of surface waters in Nnewi urban, Nigeria: implications of poor waste disposal. In Environmental Forensics (Vol. 23, Issues 3–4, pp. 346–360). Informa UK Limited. https://doi.org/10.1080/15275922.2020.1850564 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15275922.2020.1850564

Meride, Y., & Ayenew, B. (2016). Drinking water quality assessment and its effects on residents health in Wondo genet campus, Ethiopia. In Environmental Systems Research (Vol. 5, Issue 1). Springer Science and Business Media LLC. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40068-016-0053-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40068-016-0053-6

Ojekunle, Z., & Adeleke, J. (2017). The effect of storage on Physical, Chemical and Bacteriological characteristics of Sachet and bottled water marketed in Ibadan Metropolis, Oyo State. Nigeria. In Journal of Applied Sciences and Environmental Management (Vol. 21, Issue 6, p. 1203). African Journals Online (AJOL). https://doi.org/10.4314/jasem.v21i6.35 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4314/jasem.v21i6.35

Ukah, B. U., Ameh, P. D., Egbueri, J. C., Unigwe, C. O., & Ubido, O. E. (2020). Impact of effluent-derived heavy metals on the groundwater quality in Ajao industrial area, Nigeria: an assessment using entropy water quality index (EWQI). In International Journal of Energy and Water Resources (Vol. 4, Issue 3, pp. 231–244). Springer Science and Business Media LLC. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42108-020-00058-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s42108-020-00058-5

Ayejoto, D. A., Agbasi, J. C., Egbueri, J. C., & Echefu, K. I. (2022). Assessment of oral and dermal health risk exposures associated with contaminated water resources: an update in Ojoto area, southeast Nigeria. In International Journal of Environmental Analytical Chemistry (Vol. 104, Issue 3, pp. 641–661). Informa UK Limited. https://doi.org/10.1080/03067319.2021.2023515 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03067319.2021.2023515

Puri, A., & Kumar, M. (2012). A review of permissible limits of drinking water. In Indian Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine (Vol. 16, Issue 1, p. 40). Medknow. https://doi.org/10.4103/0019-5278.99696 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4103/0019-5278.99696

Fadipe, O. O. (2020). Characteristics of Packaged Water under Different Storage Conditions Within Osogbo Metropolis. In UNIOSUN Journal of Engineering and Environmental Sciences (Vol. 2, Issue 2). Lujosh Ventures Limited. https://doi.org/10.36108/ujees/0202.20.0221 DOI: https://doi.org/10.36108/ujees/0202.20.0221

Jadhav, S., & Jadhav, M. (2017). Study of sulphate concentration of Pavana River at Pune: A case study. In International Journal of Chemical Studies (Vol. 5, Issue 2, pp. 198–200). AkiNik Publications.

Cotruvo, J. A. (2017). 2017 WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality: First Addendum to the Fourth Edition. In Journal AWWA (Vol. 109, Issue 7, pp. 44–51). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.5942/jawwa.2017.109.0087 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5942/jawwa.2017.109.0087

Bradshaw, M. H., & Powell, G. M. (2002). Sodium in drinking water. Kansas State University Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service, Manhattan. Retrieved from https://www.ksre.k-state.edu/historicpublications/pubs/MF1094.pdf.

Egbueri, J. C. (2020). Signatures of contamination, corrosivity and scaling in natural waters from a fast-developing suburb (Nigeria): insights into their suitability for industrial purposes. In Environment, Development and Sustainability (Vol. 23, Issue 1, pp. 591–609). Springer Science and Business Media LLC. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-020-00597-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-020-00597-1

Payne, M. (2008). Lead in drinking water. In Canadian Medical Association Journal (Vol. 179, Issue 3, pp. 253–254). CMA Joule Inc. https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.071483 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.071483

Ndamitso, M., Idris, S., Likita, M., Tijani, J. O., Ajai, A., & Bala, A. (2013). Physico-chemical and Escherichia coli assessment of selected sachet water produced in some areas of Minna, Niger State, Nigeria. In International Journal of Water Resources and Environmental Engineering (Vol. 5, Issue 3, pp. 134–140). Academic Journals.

Oyelude, E. O., & Ahenkorah, S. (2012). Quality of sachet water and bottled water in Bolgatanga municipality of Ghana. In Research Journal of Applied Sciences, Engineering and Technology (Vol. 4, Issue 9, pp. 1094–1098). Maxwell Scientific Publications.

Mberekpe, P., & Eze, N. (2014). Effect of Preservation on the Quality of Sachet Water Consumed by Households in Nsukka Zone. In Civil and Environmental Research (Vol. 6, Issue 7, pp. 25–30). Sciendo.

Chalchisa, D., Megersa, M., & Beyene, A. (2017). Assessment of the quality of drinking water in storage tanks and its implication on the safety of urban water supply in developing countries. In Environmental Systems Research (Vol. 6, Issue 1). Springer Science and Business Media LLC. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40068-017-0089-2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40068-017-0089-2

Ashbolt, N. J., Grabow, W. O., & Snozzi, M. (2001). Indicators of microbial water quality. In L. Fewtrell & J. Bartram (Eds.), Water quality: Guidelines, standards and health (pp. 289–316). IWA Publishing.

Muazu, J., Muhammad-Biu, A., & Mohammed, G. (2012). Microbial Quality of Packaged Sachet Water Marketed in Maiduguri Metropolis, North Eastern Nigeria. In British Journal of Pharmacology and Toxicology (Vol. 3, Issue 1, pp 33–38). Maxwell Scientific Publications.

Yusuff, A. S., John, W., & Oloruntoba, A. C. (2014). Review on Prevalence of Waterborne Diseases in Nigeria. In Journal of Advancement in Medical and Life Sciences (Vol. 2 pp. 1–3). ScienceQ Publishing Group. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4471/rise.2014.17

Emmanuel Odipe, O., Olawale Sawyerr, H., & Olayinka Adewoye, S. (2020). Filling Stations and Their Effects on Groundwater Quality in Ilorin Metropolis. In International Journal of Environmental Protection and Policy (Vol. 8, Issue 1, p. 11). Science Publishing Group. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijepp.20200801.12 DOI: https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijepp.20200801.12